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NUCLEAR MEDICINE TESTS: Procedures: Nuclear medicine physicians use two types of tests in the diagnosis of disease. In vitro (in the test tube) procedures and in vivo (in the body) procedures. In vitro procedures involve analysis of blood and urine specimens using radioactive chemicals. For example, a radioimmunoassay (RIA) is an in vitro procedure that combines the use of radioactive chemicals and antibodies to detect hormones and drugs in a patient's blood. The test allows the detection of minute amounts of drug. RIA is used to monitor the amount of digitalis, a drug used to treat heart disease in a patient's bloodstream and can detect hypothyroidism in newborn infants. In vivo tests trace the amounts of radioactive substances within the body. They are given directly to a patient to evaluate the function of an organ or to image it. For example, in tracer studies a specific radionuclide is incorporated into a chemical substance and administered to a patie...

Cardiac Creatine phosphokinase (CK) - Levels rise 4 to 8 hours after an acute MI, peaking at 16 to 30 hours and returning to baseline within 4 days 25-200 U/L 32-150 U/L CK-MB CK isoenzyme - It begins to increase 6 to 10 hours after an acute MI, peaks in 24 hours, and remains elevated for up to 72 hours. <>400 IU/L (LDH) Lactate dehydrogenase - Total LDH will begin to rise 2 to 5 days after an MI; the elevation can last 10 days. 140-280 U/L LDH-1 and LDH-2 LDH isoenzymes - Compare LDH 1 and LDH 2 levels. Normally, the LDH-1 value will be less than the LDH-2. In the acute MI, however, the LDH 2 remains constant, while LDH 1 rises. When the LDH 1 is higher than LDH 2, the LDH is said to be flipped, which is highly suggestive of an MI. A flipped pattern appears 12-24 hours post MI and persists for 48 hours. LDH-1 18%-33% LDH-2 28%-40% SGOT - will begin to rise in 8-12 hours and peak in 18-30 hours 10-42 U/L Myoglobin - early and sensitive diagnosis of myoc...

Thyroid Chemistry:  THYROXINE (T4) - Increased levels are found in hyperthyroidism, acute thyroiditis, and hepatitis. Low levels can be found in Cretinism, hypothyroidism, cirrhosis, malnutrition, and chronic thyroiditis. Normal Adult Range: 4 - 12 ug/dl Optimal Adult Reading: 8 ug/dl T3-UPTAKE - Increased levels are found in hyperthyroidism, severe liver disease, metastatic malignancy, and pulmonary insufficiency. Decreased levels are found in hypothyroidism, normal pregnancy, and hyperestrogenis status. Normal Adult Range: 27 - 47% Optimal Adult Reading: 37 % FREE T4 INDEX (T7) Normal Adult Range: 4 - 12 Optimal Adult Reading: 8 THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH) - produced by the anterior pituitary gland, causes the release and distribution of stored thyroid hormones. When T4 and T3 are too high, TSH secretion decreases, when T4 and T3 are low, TSH secretion increases. Normal Adult Range: .5 - 6 miliIU/L. In the next post we will learn about Car...

Electrolyte Values:  SODIUM - Sodium is the most abundant cation in the blood and its chief base. It functions in the body to maintain osmotic pressure, acid-base balance and to transmit nerve impulses. Very Low value: seizure and Neurologic Sx. Normal Adult Range: 135-146 mEq/L Optimal Adult Reading: 140.5 POTASSIUM - Potassium is the major intracellular cation. Very low value: Cardiac arythemia. Normal Range: 3.5 - 5.5 mEq/L Optimal Adult Reading: 4.5 CHLORIDE - Elevated levels are related to acidosis as well as too much water crossing the cell membrane. Decreased levels with decreased serum albumin may indicate water deficiency crossing the cell membrane (edema). Normal Adult Range: 95-112 mEq/L Optimal Adult Reading: 103 CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) - The CO2 level is related to the respiratory exchange of carbon dioxide in the lungs and is part of the bodies buffering system. Generally when used with the other electrolytes, it is a good indicator of acid...

Hematology Values HEMATOCRIT (HCT) Normal Adult Female Range: 37 - 47% Optimal Adult Female Reading: 42% Normal Adult Male Range 40 - 54% Optimal Adult Male Reading: 47 Normal Newborn Range: 50 - 62% Optimal Newborn Reading: 56 HEMOGLOBIN (HGB) Normal Adult Female Range: 12 - 16 g/dl Optimal Adult Female Reading: 14 g/dl Normal Adult Male Range: 14 - 18 g/dl Optimal Adult Male Reading: 16 g/dl Normal Newborn Range: 14 - 20 g/dl Optimal Newborn Reading: 17 g/dl MCH (Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin) Normal Adult Range: 27 - 33 pg Optimal Adult Reading: 30 MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume) Normal Adult Range: 80 - 100 fl Optimal Adult Reading: 90 Higher ranges are found in newborns and infants MCHC (Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration) Normal Adult Range: 32 - 36 % Optimal Adult Reading: 34 Higher ranges are found in newborns and infants R.B.C. (Red Blood Cell Count) Normal Adult Female Range: 3.9 - 5.2 mill/mcl Optima...

Radioactivity: The giving out of power or energy in the outward appearance of elements or beams originating from the center of a matter is called radioactivity. Radionuclides: A radionuclide is a material that imparts elevated power particles or beams seeing that it falls to pieces. Radionuclides are created in what's more a nuclear reactor or an electrically exciting substance to gather speed. Not later than glow with established particles bring about commotion and wavering. Half-life period: Half-life is the point in time or occasion necessary intended for electrically excited substances that are radionuclides to go down partial that is half of its radioactivity by breakdown. Why Radionuclides are Important in Medicine Field? 1. The information of the half-life of a radionuclide is of great consequence to be decisive how far the radioactive material will send out radioactive material will give off radioactivity in a patient's body. ...

VISUAL EXAMINATIONS USED IN RADIOLOGY:  The radiopaque studies may create some side effects in some patients as the radiopaque substance contains iodine contrast materials. The side effects may be of some bland reactions for instance redness of the skin, queasiness, warmth or itchiness sensations, and sometimes may be serious reactions like spasm in the airway, hives, swelling of the larynx, vasodilation, and rapid heart rate etc., Management of this situation is immediate fixing of ventilation followed by injections of adrenaline and corticosteroids or any antihistamine injection. When the patient is prone to allergic reactions some other studies like fluoroscopy, tomography, and MRI or magnetic resonance imaging are used. We will see about these procedures one by one. Fluoroscopy: X-rays are taken using a fluorescent screen by passing the equipment through the patient. The method of functioning of fluoroscopy is that when the rays of light energy the fluorescent pla...

Ultrasound: High-frequency impossible to hear muffled sound waves are sent and these waves are bounced off by body tissues. The movement of sound waves are recorded to give the information about the structure of the inside organs. The good transmission of waves is ensured by placing an instrument near the skin and by smother the skin surface by an oily substance. Oil substance probably a mineral oil is put for the diffusion of sound waves properly. The ultrasound instrument produces dumpy sound waves in cyclic beats. Each wave is in different speed of motion and invades through the tissues inside the body and becomes aware of boundaries amid tissues of diverse compactness. These waves are passed back to the ultrasound monitor and recorded. This record is called echogram or sonogram . This instrument is used not only by radiologists, but also by ophthalmologists to detect intracranial and ophthalmic lesions. Cardiologists also use this instrument to identify blood v...

In order to take the best possible view of the part of the body being radiographed, the patient, film, and x-ray tube must be positioned in the most favorable alignment possible. There are special terms used by radiologists to designate the position for direction of the x-ray beam, the patient's position, and the motion and position of the part of the body to be examined. Some of the important x-rays terms are as follows: AP view or anteroposterior view: In this view the patient is usually supine i.e. lying on the back and the x-ray tube is aimed from above at the frontal side of the body and the beam is passed from the anterior to posterior. The film lies underneath the patient. The AP view may also be taken with the patient in the upright position. PA view or posteroanterior view: In this view, the patient is upright with back to the x-ray machine and the film to the chest. The x-ray machine is aimed horizontally at a distance of about 6-feet from the ...

1. Adjuvant therapy: Assisting primary treatment. Drugs are given early in the course of treatment along with surgery or radiation to attack cancer cells that may be too small to be detected by diagnostic techniques. 2. Alkylating agents: Synthetic chemicals containing alkyl groups that interfere with DNA synthesis. 3. Anaplasia: Loss of differentiation of cells. Reversion to a more primitive cell type. 4. Antibiotics: Chemical substances produced by bacteria that inhibit the growth of cells used in cancer chemotherapy. 5. Antimetabolites: Chemicals that prevent cell division by inhibiting the formation of substances necessary to make DNA and used in cancer chemotherapy. 6. Apoptesis: Programmed cell death. Apo- means off, away, and -ptosis means to fall. Normal cells undergo apoptesis when they are damaged or aging. Some cancer cells have lost the ability to undergo apoptesis and live forever. 7. Benign: Noncancerous. 6. Biolo...

BIOLOGICAL THERAPY TO CURE CANCER:  An additional fresh line of attack to cancer management is the employment of the body's individual resistance systems to scrap tumor cells. Researchers see the sights how the ingredients of the immune system can be brought back, developed, imitated, and influenced to annihilate cancer cells within the body. Chemical materials brought into being by standard cells that moreover in a straight line wedge tumor development before kindle the immune system and additional body barricades are called genetic reaction modifiers. The instances of these materials are interferon prepared by lymphocytes, monoclonal antibodies created by mouse cells, and proficiency of strapping to human tumors, colony-stimulating factors or CSFs so as to accelerate blood-forming cells and turn around the upshots of chemotherapy, and interleukins with the intentions of stimulating the immune system to annihilate tumors. Now we will sort out chemotherapeutic and biolog...

CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS:  The subsequent list categorizes all cancer chemotherapeutic agents: 1. Plant byproducts: These chemical substances are drawn from plants. These chemical materials are used recurrently in mixture as a supplement to other chemotherapeutic agents. The offshoot effects take account of myelosuppression, alopecia, and smash up of nerves. 2. Antimetabolites: These drugs slow down the amalgamation of drugs so as to the essential part of DNA or possibly will unswervingly hunk the copying DNA. The offshoot consequences of antimetabolites are myelosuppression with leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, and bleeding. The other side effects are toxicity to the oral and digestive tract, as well as stomatitis called sore mouth, nausea, and vomiting. 3. Alkylating agents: These are artificial amalgams be full of two or more element groups names alkyl groups. The chemical substances get in the way by means of the development of DNA fusion next to putt...