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NUCLEAR MEDICINE TESTS: Procedures: Nuclear medicine physicians use two types of tests in the diagnosis of disease. In vitro (in the test tube) procedures and in vivo (in the body) procedures. In vitro procedures involve analysis of blood and urine specimens using radioactive chemicals. For example, a radioimmunoassay (RIA) is an in vitro procedure that combines the use of radioactive chemicals and antibodies to detect hormones and drugs in a patient's blood. The test allows the detection of minute amounts of drug. RIA is used to monitor the amount of digitalis, a drug used to treat heart disease in a patient's bloodstream and can detect hypothyroidism in newborn infants. In vivo tests trace the amounts of radioactive substances within the body. They are given directly to a patient to evaluate the function of an organ or to image it. For example, in tracer studies a specific radionuclide is incorporated into a chemical substance and administered to a patie...

Cardiac Creatine phosphokinase (CK) - Levels rise 4 to 8 hours after an acute MI, peaking at 16 to 30 hours and returning to baseline within 4 days 25-200 U/L 32-150 U/L CK-MB CK isoenzyme - It begins to increase 6 to 10 hours after an acute MI, peaks in 24 hours, and remains elevated for up to 72 hours. <>400 IU/L (LDH) Lactate dehydrogenase - Total LDH will begin to rise 2 to 5 days after an MI; the elevation can last 10 days. 140-280 U/L LDH-1 and LDH-2 LDH isoenzymes - Compare LDH 1 and LDH 2 levels. Normally, the LDH-1 value will be less than the LDH-2. In the acute MI, however, the LDH 2 remains constant, while LDH 1 rises. When the LDH 1 is higher than LDH 2, the LDH is said to be flipped, which is highly suggestive of an MI. A flipped pattern appears 12-24 hours post MI and persists for 48 hours. LDH-1 18%-33% LDH-2 28%-40% SGOT - will begin to rise in 8-12 hours and peak in 18-30 hours 10-42 U/L Myoglobin - early and sensitive diagnosis of myoc...

Thyroid Chemistry:  THYROXINE (T4) - Increased levels are found in hyperthyroidism, acute thyroiditis, and hepatitis. Low levels can be found in Cretinism, hypothyroidism, cirrhosis, malnutrition, and chronic thyroiditis. Normal Adult Range: 4 - 12 ug/dl Optimal Adult Reading: 8 ug/dl T3-UPTAKE - Increased levels are found in hyperthyroidism, severe liver disease, metastatic malignancy, and pulmonary insufficiency. Decreased levels are found in hypothyroidism, normal pregnancy, and hyperestrogenis status. Normal Adult Range: 27 - 47% Optimal Adult Reading: 37 % FREE T4 INDEX (T7) Normal Adult Range: 4 - 12 Optimal Adult Reading: 8 THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH) - produced by the anterior pituitary gland, causes the release and distribution of stored thyroid hormones. When T4 and T3 are too high, TSH secretion decreases, when T4 and T3 are low, TSH secretion increases. Normal Adult Range: .5 - 6 miliIU/L. In the next post we will learn about Car...

Electrolyte Values:  SODIUM - Sodium is the most abundant cation in the blood and its chief base. It functions in the body to maintain osmotic pressure, acid-base balance and to transmit nerve impulses. Very Low value: seizure and Neurologic Sx. Normal Adult Range: 135-146 mEq/L Optimal Adult Reading: 140.5 POTASSIUM - Potassium is the major intracellular cation. Very low value: Cardiac arythemia. Normal Range: 3.5 - 5.5 mEq/L Optimal Adult Reading: 4.5 CHLORIDE - Elevated levels are related to acidosis as well as too much water crossing the cell membrane. Decreased levels with decreased serum albumin may indicate water deficiency crossing the cell membrane (edema). Normal Adult Range: 95-112 mEq/L Optimal Adult Reading: 103 CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) - The CO2 level is related to the respiratory exchange of carbon dioxide in the lungs and is part of the bodies buffering system. Generally when used with the other electrolytes, it is a good indicator of acid...

Hematology Values HEMATOCRIT (HCT) Normal Adult Female Range: 37 - 47% Optimal Adult Female Reading: 42% Normal Adult Male Range 40 - 54% Optimal Adult Male Reading: 47 Normal Newborn Range: 50 - 62% Optimal Newborn Reading: 56 HEMOGLOBIN (HGB) Normal Adult Female Range: 12 - 16 g/dl Optimal Adult Female Reading: 14 g/dl Normal Adult Male Range: 14 - 18 g/dl Optimal Adult Male Reading: 16 g/dl Normal Newborn Range: 14 - 20 g/dl Optimal Newborn Reading: 17 g/dl MCH (Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin) Normal Adult Range: 27 - 33 pg Optimal Adult Reading: 30 MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume) Normal Adult Range: 80 - 100 fl Optimal Adult Reading: 90 Higher ranges are found in newborns and infants MCHC (Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration) Normal Adult Range: 32 - 36 % Optimal Adult Reading: 34 Higher ranges are found in newborns and infants R.B.C. (Red Blood Cell Count) Normal Adult Female Range: 3.9 - 5.2 mill/mcl Optima...

Radioactivity: The giving out of power or energy in the outward appearance of elements or beams originating from the center of a matter is called radioactivity. Radionuclides: A radionuclide is a material that imparts elevated power particles or beams seeing that it falls to pieces. Radionuclides are created in what's more a nuclear reactor or an electrically exciting substance to gather speed. Not later than glow with established particles bring about commotion and wavering. Half-life period: Half-life is the point in time or occasion necessary intended for electrically excited substances that are radionuclides to go down partial that is half of its radioactivity by breakdown. Why Radionuclides are Important in Medicine Field? 1. The information of the half-life of a radionuclide is of great consequence to be decisive how far the radioactive material will send out radioactive material will give off radioactivity in a patient's body. ...

VISUAL EXAMINATIONS USED IN RADIOLOGY:  The radiopaque studies may create some side effects in some patients as the radiopaque substance contains iodine contrast materials. The side effects may be of some bland reactions for instance redness of the skin, queasiness, warmth or itchiness sensations, and sometimes may be serious reactions like spasm in the airway, hives, swelling of the larynx, vasodilation, and rapid heart rate etc., Management of this situation is immediate fixing of ventilation followed by injections of adrenaline and corticosteroids or any antihistamine injection. When the patient is prone to allergic reactions some other studies like fluoroscopy, tomography, and MRI or magnetic resonance imaging are used. We will see about these procedures one by one. Fluoroscopy: X-rays are taken using a fluorescent screen by passing the equipment through the patient. The method of functioning of fluoroscopy is that when the rays of light energy the fluorescent pla...

Ultrasound: High-frequency impossible to hear muffled sound waves are sent and these waves are bounced off by body tissues. The movement of sound waves are recorded to give the information about the structure of the inside organs. The good transmission of waves is ensured by placing an instrument near the skin and by smother the skin surface by an oily substance. Oil substance probably a mineral oil is put for the diffusion of sound waves properly. The ultrasound instrument produces dumpy sound waves in cyclic beats. Each wave is in different speed of motion and invades through the tissues inside the body and becomes aware of boundaries amid tissues of diverse compactness. These waves are passed back to the ultrasound monitor and recorded. This record is called echogram or sonogram . This instrument is used not only by radiologists, but also by ophthalmologists to detect intracranial and ophthalmic lesions. Cardiologists also use this instrument to identify blood v...

In order to take the best possible view of the part of the body being radiographed, the patient, film, and x-ray tube must be positioned in the most favorable alignment possible. There are special terms used by radiologists to designate the position for direction of the x-ray beam, the patient's position, and the motion and position of the part of the body to be examined. Some of the important x-rays terms are as follows: AP view or anteroposterior view: In this view the patient is usually supine i.e. lying on the back and the x-ray tube is aimed from above at the frontal side of the body and the beam is passed from the anterior to posterior. The film lies underneath the patient. The AP view may also be taken with the patient in the upright position. PA view or posteroanterior view: In this view, the patient is upright with back to the x-ray machine and the film to the chest. The x-ray machine is aimed horizontally at a distance of about 6-feet from the ...

1. Adjuvant therapy: Assisting primary treatment. Drugs are given early in the course of treatment along with surgery or radiation to attack cancer cells that may be too small to be detected by diagnostic techniques. 2. Alkylating agents: Synthetic chemicals containing alkyl groups that interfere with DNA synthesis. 3. Anaplasia: Loss of differentiation of cells. Reversion to a more primitive cell type. 4. Antibiotics: Chemical substances produced by bacteria that inhibit the growth of cells used in cancer chemotherapy. 5. Antimetabolites: Chemicals that prevent cell division by inhibiting the formation of substances necessary to make DNA and used in cancer chemotherapy. 6. Apoptesis: Programmed cell death. Apo- means off, away, and -ptosis means to fall. Normal cells undergo apoptesis when they are damaged or aging. Some cancer cells have lost the ability to undergo apoptesis and live forever. 7. Benign: Noncancerous. 6. Biolo...

BIOLOGICAL THERAPY TO CURE CANCER:  An additional fresh line of attack to cancer management is the employment of the body's individual resistance systems to scrap tumor cells. Researchers see the sights how the ingredients of the immune system can be brought back, developed, imitated, and influenced to annihilate cancer cells within the body. Chemical materials brought into being by standard cells that moreover in a straight line wedge tumor development before kindle the immune system and additional body barricades are called genetic reaction modifiers. The instances of these materials are interferon prepared by lymphocytes, monoclonal antibodies created by mouse cells, and proficiency of strapping to human tumors, colony-stimulating factors or CSFs so as to accelerate blood-forming cells and turn around the upshots of chemotherapy, and interleukins with the intentions of stimulating the immune system to annihilate tumors. Now we will sort out chemotherapeutic and biolog...

CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS:  The subsequent list categorizes all cancer chemotherapeutic agents: 1. Plant byproducts: These chemical substances are drawn from plants. These chemical materials are used recurrently in mixture as a supplement to other chemotherapeutic agents. The offshoot effects take account of myelosuppression, alopecia, and smash up of nerves. 2. Antimetabolites: These drugs slow down the amalgamation of drugs so as to the essential part of DNA or possibly will unswervingly hunk the copying DNA. The offshoot consequences of antimetabolites are myelosuppression with leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, and bleeding. The other side effects are toxicity to the oral and digestive tract, as well as stomatitis called sore mouth, nausea, and vomiting. 3. Alkylating agents: These are artificial amalgams be full of two or more element groups names alkyl groups. The chemical substances get in the way by means of the development of DNA fusion next to putt...

This is the continuation of LESSON 128. 29. Morbidity: The condition of being diseased. 30. Mucinous: The cancer cells containing mucus. 31. Mutation: Change in the genetic material that is DNA of a cell may be caused by chemicals, radiation or viruses or may occur spontaneously. 32. Neoplasm: New growth that may be either benign or malignant tumor. 33. Oncogene: A region of genetic material in a cell that is DNA found in tumor cell (cellular oncogene) on in viruses that cause cancer called viral oncogene. Oncogenes are designated by a three-letter word, such as abl, erb, jun, myc, ras, and src. 34. Pedunculated: Possessing a stem or stalk (peduncle) characteristic of some polypoid tumors. 35. Pharmacokinetics: Study of the distribution and removal of drugs in the body over a period of time. 36. Protocol: An explicit, detailed plan for treatment. 37. Radiation: Energy carried by a stream of particles. Various forms of radiation can cause cancer. 38. Radiocurable tumor...

This lesson is the continuation of the LESSON 127. 15. Electron beams: Low-energy beams of radiation for treatment of skin or surface tumors. 16. Encapsulated: Surrounded by a capsule. Benign tumors are generally encapsulated. 17. Fractionation: Giving radiation in small, repeated doses. 18. Grading of tumors: Evaluating the degree of maturity of tumor cells. 19. Gross description of tumor: Visual appearance of tumors, cystic, fungating, inflammatory, medullary, necrotic, polypoid, ulcerating, and verrucous. 20. Infiltrative: Extending beyond normal tissue boundaries. 21. Invasive: Having the ability to enter and destroy surrounding tissue. 22. Linear accelerator: Device that produces high-energy x-ray beams for treatment of deep-seated tumors. 23. Malignant: Tending to become worse and result in death. Tumors having the characteristics of invasiveness, anaplasia, and metastasis. 24. Metastasis: Spread of a malignant tumor to a secondary site. Literally beyond control ...

1. Adjuvant therapy: Assisting primary treatment. Drugs are given early in the course of treatment along with surgery or radiation to attack cancer cells that may be too small to be detected by diagnostic techniques. 2. Alkylating agents: Synthetic chemicals containing alkyl groups that interfere with DNA synthesis. 3. Anaplasia: Loss of differentiation of cells. Reversion to a more primitive cell type. 4. Antibiotics: Chemical substances produced by bacteria that inhibit the growth of cells used in cancer chemotherapy. 5. Antimetabolites: Chemicals that prevent cell division by inhibiting the formation of substances necessary to make DNA and used in cancer chemotherapy. 6. Apoptesis: Programmed cell death. Apo- means off, away, and -ptosis means to fall. Normal cells undergo apoptesis when they are damaged or aging. Some cancer cells have lost the ability to undergo apoptesis and live forever. 7. Benign: Noncancerous. 6. Biological response modifiers: Substances produ...

1. Aleveol/o- means a small bag or a sac Alveolar means pertaining to a small bag. 2. Cac/o- means dreadful or bad Cachexia means ill health and underfeeding. This may happen after a chronic disease. -hexia means habit. 3. Carcin/o- means cancer or cancerous. Carcinoma in situ means a cancer confined to a small area. 4. Cauter/o- means burn or heat. Electrocauterization is a process of burning with electricity. 5. Chem/o- means chemical substance or a drug. Chemotherapy is a treatment method of cancer using chemical substances i.e. drugs. 6. Cry/o- means cold or ice. Cryotherapy is a treatment method of cancer using cold or ice in a fluid bag. 7. Fibr/o- means fibers. Fibrosarcoma is a type of cancer of fibers and flesh portion of the body. 8. Follicul/o- means tiny glandular bags or sacs. Follicular is pertaining to small glandular sacs or pouches or bags. 9. Fung/o- means fungus or yeast or toadstool or mushroom. Fungating tumor is a tumor that appears li...

1. -blast means undeveloped or not fully formed. Osteoblast is the undeveloped bone cells. 2. -oma means tumor or bunch. Neuroma is the tumor of the nerve cells. 3. -plasia means creation or development. Hyperplasia is disproportionate or extreme development of a cell. 4. -plasm means development or growth. Neoplasm is new growth or development of a cell. 5. -therapy means management. Radiotherapy is the management of cancer using beams of x-rays. CANCER MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY-IMPORTANT PREFIXES 1. ana- means toward the back or rearward. Anaplasia means backward growth of a cell. 2. apo- means off or not there. Apoptosis is the peter out or fade out. 3. epi- means upon or ahead. Epidermoid means the cells resembling epidermal tissue. 4. Meta- means away from or outside. Metastasis means spread away of a growth of a cell outside the limit. In the next post we will learn about Important Cancer Lab Tests. Okay. Come on. To go to the next lesson from here p...

In this post we will study about different laboratory tests done to diagnose cancer one by one. Okay. 1. Acid phosphatase-This is an enzyme brings into being in lofty intensity in the blood of patients who has prostate cancer. 2. Alpha-fetoprotein test- This test is useful in find out the occurrence of alpha-fetoprotein in the serum of the patient who has testicular or liver cancer. 3. beta-HCG test- This test is useful in finding out the occurrence of HCG or human chorionic gonadotrophin in the serum of the blood of the patients who has cancer in their testicles. 4. CA-125- The patients who has cancer in ovaries i.e. ovarian cancer has a protein material that is from the cell exterior portion. This is produced by the cancer cells that produce cancer in the ovaries. 5. CEA test- This test is useful in discovering CEA or carcinoembryonic antigen in the blood of the patients who have cancer in their gastrointestinal tract or GI tract. 6. Estrogen receptor or Estradiol receptor As...

PROSTATE CANCER STAGING: What is staging? Prostate cancer assessment is vital in finding out the stage of it. By this examination the depth of spread of cancer is found out. This is called cancer staging. Awareness of the stage would be of greatly helpful in classify the prospects and also advantageous at what time decide on using chemotherapies or radiation therapies or surgery. TNM staging system:  Most commonly a staging system is used nowadays called four-stage TNM system (T means tumor, N means nodes, and M means metastases). The elements of this staging system comprise of the dimension or extent of the tumor, the number of concerned lymph nodes, and the occurrence of metastases of any. Aim of Staging Method:  The ultimate aim of any staging is to confirm whether or not the cancer is still limited to the prostate. Up to T1 and T2 levels of prostate cancers the spread of cancer found merely in the prostate, but in the T3 and T4 level of cancers the spread is aw...

What prostate?  Prostate is a gland of chestnut in shape, which surrounds the foundation of the urethra (a canal which shows the say on or after the bladder that releases the urine outwardly and ejaculates semen during sex) in the male. The prostate gland is a component of the male reproductive organ that lends a hand to creat and stock up seminal fluid. For the reason that of its location, prostate often gets infection or any other illnesses and over and over again and which have an effect on urination, ejaculation, and on the odd occasion defecation. The prostate is full of many small glands and which put together approximately 20% of the fluid adding up to semen. When this gland takes part in cancer, the cells of these glands transmute and hooked on into cancer cells. The prostate glands need of androgen (common phrase for an hormone agent which excites activity of the accessory male sex organs and promotes growth of male sex uniqueness and this is a by-product of and...

1. Lymphangiography: Contrast (distinct-colored) dye is infused into the lymphatic vessels of the feet, as well as x-rays are taken of the lymphatic system to find out distended lymph nodes, obstruction in the lymphatic system, and the occurrence of tumors if any. 2. Bone marrow biopsy: A minute quantity of bone marrow tissue is aspirated and scrutinized beneath the microscope intended for proof of cancerous cells. 3. Needle Biopsy: A pointer needle is put in into the tissue in problem, and a central part of that tissue is detached. Aspiration of a tissues or suction of a tissue possibly used to remove free cells as of a fluid-filled cavity. This biopsy is taken from the cystic areas of the breast or from a solid lump of tumor. 4. Peritoneoscopy: This modus operandi as well called laparoscopy. This method is used to examine the abdominal or peritoneal cavity for any tumors. A laparoscope or peritoneoscope is inserted into the peritoneal cavity from side to side a smal...

In this post, we are going to learn about important cancer abbreviations. These abbreviations are dictated often by physicians while we do online live medical transcription work in companies. So as a medical transcription learner, you all should be very much familiar with these medical terminologies. 1. bx means biopsy 2. ca means cancer 3. CEA means carcinoembryonic antigen 4. CMF means Cytoxan and methotrexate 5. 5-Fu means 5-fluorouracil 6. prot means protocol 7. CR means complete response 8. PSA means prostate specific antigen 9. DES means diethylstilbestrol 10. RNA means ribonucleic acid 11. DNA means deoxyribonucleic acid 12. TNM means tumor, nodes, and metastases 13. ER means estrogen receptor 14. XRT means radiation therapy 15. Ga means Gallium 16. mets means metastases 17. NED means no evidence of disease 18. NHL means non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 19. Pap smear means Papanicolaou's smear 20. PR means partial resp...

This is the treatment of ailment by means of also an external source of high-energy beams like photons, protons, and gamma rays. They are on the inside embedded radioactive substances. These radioactive waves and particles are helpful in destructing the cancer cells in the body especially the DNA of those cells and stopping the progress of their development. There are variable human resource people concerned in this medical field. A doctor who specializes in diagnostic radiology is called radiologist. A doctor who dedicates himself in the practice of management of investigative nuclear medicine course of action is called nuclear physician. A physician who is specialized in practice of radiotherapy is called radiation oncologist or radiotherapist. Allied health care professionals who work with physicians in the fields of radiology, nuclear medicine, and radiotherapy are called radiologic technologists. Radiologic technologists can be divided into three categories such as: 1...